Bharata Muni
| ← Chapter 19 | Chapter 21 → |
Introduction
1/ Now I shall describe the division of dramas into ten types — with their names, characteristics, and methods of staging.
2-3/ To define them, one should know the following types: Nāṭaka, Prakaraṇa, Aṅka (Utsṛṣṭikāṅka), Vyāyoga, Bhāṇa, Samavakāra, Vīthī, Prahasana, Ḍima, and Īhāmṛga — the tenth in order. I will describe their characteristics in detail.
4/ Styles (vṛtti) have from ancient times been recognized as the fundamental constituent parts of all dramatic works. According to the manner of embodiment, it is held that from them originate the ten types of drama.
5/ Just as musical notes (svara) form scales (grāma) through śruti in combination with their jāti, so too do the varieties of dramatic works arise from the varieties of styles.
6/ Just as the scales of Ṣaḍja and Madhyama encompass all notes, so do these two types of dramatic compositions (Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa) cover all styles.
7/ Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa should be recognized as composed of all styles; they include a variety of situations.
8-9/ Bhāṇa, Samavakāra, Vīthi, Īhāmṛga, Utsṛṣṭikāṅka (Aṅka), Vyāyoga, Ḍima and Prahasana should not include the Graceful style. I shall describe further the various ways of constructing dramas.
Nāṭaka
10-11/ [A drama] based on a widely known plot, whose hero is a renowned person of exalted character, and which depicts the image of one born in the lineage of royal sages — with his divine patronage, numerous supernatural powers and exploits: success in various undertakings and amorous adventures — and which has the proper number of acts (aṅka) and introductory scenes (praveśaka), is called Nāṭaka.
12/ The behavior of kings, conditioned by joys and sorrows — when it is revealed through acts that variously express psychological states, bearing numerous rasas — is called Nāṭaka.
Act
13/ An experienced [playwright] should properly compose an Aṅka, reflecting the changed circumstances [of the hero] and limited only to the transmission of the Life Drop (bindu).
14/ Aṅka is an ordinary word. Since, through the embodiment of psychological states and rasas, it contributes to the development of the play’s objectives, and since it follows certain technical rules for this purpose, it is called Aṅka (an act).
15/ The act must be concluded by a division of the play, and it must not contain the final resolution of the Seed (bīja). The Vital Drop (bindu) of the play must reappear again and again in the plot (vastu).
16/ That [place in the play] where a separate episode is fully developed, but the Seed is not finally resolved, — should always be recognized as an Act, slightly holding the Vital Drop (bindu).
17/ An act that narrates the direct exploits of the aforementioned persons (that is, the heroes) and their various circumstances should not be excessively long.
18/ One should also know that the Act must contain more than one rasa, arising from [the words and deeds of] the Hero, his wife, and their elders, as well as the priest, the counselor, and the caravan leader (sārthavāha).
19/ The appeasement of anger, grief, the utterance of a curse, hasty flight, a wedding ceremony, the beginning of some miracle and its actual accomplishment — should not be shown in the Act.
20/ Battle, loss of kingdom, death, and siege of a city, being unsuitable for presentation in an Act, should be conveyed through Interlude scenes.
21/ In the Act or in the Prologue of a Nāṭaka or Prakaraṇa, there should be no killing of a person recognized as the Hero.
22/ His flight, capture, or negotiations [with the enemy] should be carried out and indicated in the Introductory Scenes by reference to the corresponding actions.
23/ An act should encompass events that may occur within a single day. It should be connected to the Seed of the play and unfold without contradicting the daily routine.
24/ A wise playwright should not introduce too many events into one Act. The events in it should be depicted without disrupting the customary daily routine.
25/ Persons appearing on stage during an Act leave after fulfilling what is connected with the Seed and the purpose of the play, and should lead to the corresponding rasas.
26/ Knowing the length of the day, divided into kṣaṇas, yāmas and muhūrtas, one should distribute the entire action across the various Acts in an exhaustive manner.
Introductory scene
27/ When events that are to conclude within the day cannot be contained in the Act, they should be presented in the Introductory Scene after the completion of that same Act.
28/ Having closed the Act in which they begin, events requiring a month or a year for their accomplishment — but by no means more than that — should likewise be presented in a similar manner.
29/ When in an Act any person sets out on a distant journey on business, the Act should be concluded at that moment — as prescribed before.
30/ With the Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa Acts, the hero must be closely connected. The introductory scene, however, should be composed of a conversation among the accompanying persons.
31/ In plays, since they pertain to Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa, the Introductory Scene, placed between two Acts, will briefly indicate the [following] Links (sandhi).
32/ It (the introductory scene) should not include the exploits of characters of high and middle rank, and it should not contain elevated speech. In practice, it should adopt the speech and manners of the common people.
33/ The introductory scene can serve many purposes: it may explain the passage of time, a change of intention, or a reversal in the course of events, as well as announce the beginning of [some event].
34/ Events that depend on many [persons] should be compressed into the Junctures by means of Introductory Scenes. For a play containing too many prose passages will be tedious [for the spectators] during [its] stage presentation.
35/ When a particular element cannot be fully presented in the Act — to avoid excess in staging — its exposition should be condensed into a few words and placed in the Introductory scene.
Auxiliary stage
36/ In the Nāṭaka, the Interlude scene (viṣkambhaka) should always be composed of characters of middle rank, should be brief, and should use speech in Sanskrit.
37/ It is of two kinds: pure (śuddha) and mixed (saṅkīrṇa). Of these, the pure is composed only of characters of the middle rank, and the mixed — of characters of the lower and middle rank.
38/ The auxiliary scene in Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa, placed between two Acts or at the beginning of an Act, must always include characters of middle and lower rank.
The number of characters
39/ Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa should not contain a large number of attendants [of the Hero]. The Hero’s companions (that is, his servants) in such plays should be no more than four or five.
40/ Plays of the types Vyāyoga, Īhāmṛga, Samavakāra, and Ḍima should have ten or twelve Acts.
Introduction of chariots and palaces to the stage
41/ A chariot, an elephant, a horse, and a palace should not be represented on stage. They must be conveyed in the play through the appearance and costumes [of the people associated with them], as well as their gait (gati) and movements (gati-vicāra).
42/ However, models of an elephant, a horse, a palace, a mountain, or any other means of conveyance, as well as [imitated] weapons made of cheap materials, should be crafted for their display by those who know the rules [of their construction].
Bringing the army onto the stage
43/ If for any reason it is necessary to bring a troop of soldiers onto the stage, let only four or six men appear.
44/ The procession should be organized as consisting of a small number of people, horses, chariots, and attendants, and should move slowly. For in the military role (kṣatra), the true rules of politics do not apply.
45/ In composing a play, the action should be structured like the tip of a cow’s tail: all the elevated situations in the play should be placed at the end.
46-47/ At the end of all plays containing various psychological states and rasas, experienced [dramatists] should always introduce the Rasa of Wonder (adbhuta). Thus I have briefly but properly described the features of Nāṭaka. Next I will describe Prakaraṇa, mentioning its characteristics.
Prakaraṇa
48/ A play in which the author (prakurute) devises an original plot together with the Hero by his own intellect and develops its embodiment (śarīra) is called a Prakaraṇa.
49/ When a playwright creates a play of remarkable merits with an original (that is, invented) Seed and a Hero not taken from the writings of the ṛṣis, for the development of the plot — it is likewise termed a Prakaraṇa.
50/ The plot and its development as the basis of rasas, prescribed for Nāṭaka, should also be applied to Prakaraṇa. Only its plot should be newly created.
51/ The various deeds of brahmins, merchants, counselors, priests, officials [of the king], and caravan leaders, [when presented in a play], should be recognized as Prakaraṇā.
52/ It should be known that the Prakaraṇa is not created with an elevated Hero. It does not contain the image of any god, has no story of royal pleasures, and is connected with people outside [the royal palace].
53/ A play of the Prakaraṇa type should include [in some cases] slaves, a Vīṭa, and the head of a guild of bankers [as characters, and contain episodes arising from] the attentions of courtesans, as well as the adventures of dissolute women from good families.
54/ [In the Act of the Prakaraṇa,] where the counselor, the head of the bankers’ guild, the Brahmin, the priest, the minister, and the caravan leaders remain within the family circle, no courtesan should be brought there.
55/ [In the Prakaraṇa,] when a person is in the company of a courtesan, there should be no meeting with any respectable woman (that is, a woman of good family); and while he is with a woman of high birth, no courtesan should meet with him.
56/ If by necessity in [some episode] of a Prakaraṇa a meeting of courtesans and respectable ladies occurs, their speech and manners should remain undistorted.
57/ In Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa, playwrights must provide for a number of Acts no fewer than five and no more than ten; and this should be furnished with diverse rasas and psychological states.
58/ Having examined the needs and action of the plot, one should place between two Acts the Introductory scenes, intended to compress the events in the Links (sandhi).
Nāṭika
59/ In the play type Nāṭikā (Nāṭī), the producers should recognize a more or less well-known variety of these two (Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa).
60/ Excellent in origin from both types — Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa — its plot must be invented, the Hero must be a king, and it must be based on [an episode connected with] music or the affairs of the harem.
61/ It contains an abundance of female characters, has four Acts; graceful gestures are its soul; well-proportioned components, numerous dances, songs and recitations, as well as amorous pleasures—these are its chief features.
62/ It should be known that the Nāṭikā also contains [the depiction of] royal manners, [a flash of] anger and its appeasement, and as dramatis personae — the Hero, his wife, the female Messenger, and attendants.
63/ The features of Nāṭaka and Prakaraṇa have been briefly described by me. Now I shall speak of the features of Samavakāra.
Samavakāra
64-65/ It [Samavakāra] should have as its subject the deeds of gods and asuras, and its Hero should be one of them, renowned and exalted; it should consist of three Acts, [representing] three kinds of deception, three kinds of excitement, or three kinds of love. [Moreover,] it should have up to twelve dramatis personae and require [for performance] a duration of eighteen nāḍikās. Now I shall speak of the rule concerning the number of nāḍikās allotted to each Act.
66/ A nāḍikā should be known as half a muhūrta — a well-known unit of time. The acts in the Samavakāra should be measured according to the instructions expressed in units of this nāḍikā.
The First Act of Samavakāra
67/ The first Act [of the Samavakāra] should have a duration of twelve nāḍikās and contain laughter, excitement, deception, or Vīthi.
The second and third Acts of Samavakāra
68/ The Second Act should also be similar to it, [but] have a duration of four nāḍikās. And the Third Act, according to the rule about the length of the plot, will have a duration of only two nāḍikās.
69/ When composing such a play, the different Acts must have various themes. In a Samavakāra, the themes should be loosely connected with one another.
Three kinds of excitation
70/ Excitement (vidrava) is known to be of three kinds: from battle, flood (that is, water), storm (that is, wind) and fire; from a maddened elephant; or from the siege of a city.
Three kinds of deception
71/ Deception (kapata) is known to be of three kinds: from deliberate design, chance, or [something applied by] an enemy. It creates joy or sorrow [in the characters].
Three kinds of love
72/ In this connection, the three kinds of love embodied through various actions are: that connected with duty (dharma), that impelled by material gain (artha), and that impelled by passion (kāma).
Love together with duty
73/ When in [following] duty the desired good is achieved by many means through unwavering austerities, — this should be recognized as love in connection with duty (dharma-śṛṅgāra).
Love together with material gain
74/ Love of money, according to its meaning, is of various kinds — from the desire for money. In it, feigned passion manifests in the matter of intercourse with a woman.
Love born of passion
75/ Love impelled by passion (kāma-śṛṅgāra) includes the seduction of a maiden, as well as a tender or passionate love affair between a man and a woman.
Sizes not permissible in Samavakāra
76/ In the Samavakāra, the playwright must appropriately use meters other than Uṣṇik, Gāyatrī, and the like, which are distinguished by their complex structure.
77/ Thus, an experienced [author] should compose a Samavakāra that narrates joys and sorrows. Next, I will speak about the peculiarities of Īhāmṛga.
Ihamṛga
78/ Its (Īhāmṛga’s) dramatis personae are divine men engaged in conflicts over divine women. It should be built on a well-structured plot and be convincing.
79/ It must abound in furious (uddhata) Heroes and be built on female anger, generating turmoil (saṅkṣobha), agitation (vidrava), and fierce conflict (saṃpheṭa).
80/ Īhamṛga must be a play with a well-structured construction, in which the plot of love should be based on stirring discord among women, their abduction, and the suppression [of enemies].
81/ Everything that should be [presented] in Vyāyoga — its male characters, styles, and rasas — should also be introduced into Īhāmṛga, except that the latter should include (that is, relate) only to goddesses (that is, divine women) as female characters.
82/ [In Īhamṛga,] when characters intending to kill are about to kill, the impending battle should be prevented under some pretext.
83/ The features of Īhāmṛga have been briefly stated by me. Next, I shall speak about the features of Ḍima.
Dima
84/ It must be built on a well-known plot, its hero must be of a renowned and exalted (udātta) type. It must contain six rasas and consist of only four Acts.
85-86/ It must contain all rasas except the Erotic and the Comic, a plot (kāvyayoni) with stirring rasas and diverse psychological states, and also include such events as an earthquake, the fall of meteorites, an eclipse of the sun or moon, a battle and a duel, as well as a fierce conflict.
87-88/ Dima must abound in deception and trickery, include the vigorous activity of numerous characters and quarrels among them; it must include sixteen dramatis personae, who may be gods, asuras, rākṣasas, bhūtas, yakṣas, and nāgas; moreover, the play must be carefully composed in the Elevated and Energetic styles and have numerous psychological states as its support.
89/ Dima has been described by me in all its features. Now I shall speak of the features of Vyāyoga.
Vyjāyoga
90/ The vyāyoga should be composed by experienced [authors] based on one well-known Hero; it should include a small number of female characters, and [the events depicted in it] will last only one day.
91/ In Samavakāra many male [characters] participate, but it does not have its length, for it must have only one Act.
92-93/ Its Hero should be a royal sage, not a divine being, and it should include battle, duel, challenge, and fierce conflict. Thus Vyāyoga should be created on the basis of exciting rasas. Now I shall speak of the features of Utsṛṣṭikāṅka (Aṅka).
Aṅka (Utsṛṣṭikāṅka)
94/ The plot in it [usually] should be well-known, but sometimes it may be different; it should include male characters other than divine ones.
95-96/ Utsṛṣṭikāṅka must abound in the Rasa of Compassion (karuṇa); it will depict the lamentation of women and desperate exclamations when the battle and cruel combat have ceased; it should include disordered movements [of the mourners] and be devoid of the Elevated, Energetic, and Graceful styles, and its plot should narrate the fall [of the character] (that is, the end of his rise).
Scenes with celestial Heroes
97/ [Scenes] of all plays that have celestial Heroes and [depict] battle, captivity, and killing [of enemies] should be attributed to Bhārata-varṣa.
98/ Why, of all the varṣas (subcontinents) created by the gods, is Bhārata-varṣa chosen? Because all the land here is beautiful, fragrant, and golden in color.
99-100/ However, [scenes of] their pleasure strolls (that is, going out into the garden), amusements, games, and enjoyment of the company of women — should always be attributed to these varṣas; for there is neither sorrow nor grief there. Their pleasures should take place on the mountains connected with those varṣas in the Purāṇic accounts, but their [other] deeds should begin here (that is, in Bhārata-varṣa).
101/ The features of Utsṛṣṭikāṅka (Aṅka) have been exhaustively explained by me. Now I shall speak of Prahasana with its features.
Prahāsana
102/ It should be known that Prahasana is of two kinds: pure and mixed. I shall set forth their characteristics separately.
Pure Prahasana
103-104/ Prahasana is known as pure (śuddha) when it contains comic quarrels of Śaiva gurus (bhagavats), ascetics, bhikṣus, śrotriya-brāhmaṇas and others, and abounds in humorous remarks of people of low class; and all this gives the Plot as a whole a realistic depiction of the language and behavior of all of them — in episodes describing their particular psychological states.
Mixed Prahasana
105/ That Prahasana is called mixed in which courtesans, servants, eunuchs, Vitas and Dhurtas, as well as unchaste women, appear in their indecent appearance, attire, and movements.
106-107/ Any popular theme [of scandal] or episode of hypocrisy should be introduced into the Prahasana through the quarrels of Dhūrtas and Vīṭas. The Prahasana should include [any of] the kinds of Vīti that it may appropriately require.
Bhāṇa
107-108/ Now I shall speak of the peculiarities of the Bhāṇa. The Bhāṇa is enacted by a single character and is of two kinds: [one — with] the expression of one’s own feelings, the other — [with] the description of others’ deeds.
109/ [The bhāṇa, which should include] the words of others addressed to the performer himself, should be enacted through replies in the course of conversations with an imaginary person (ākāśa-bhāṣita), together with [the corresponding] movements of the limbs.
110/ Bhāna must include the characters Dhūrta and Viṭa, depict their various circumstances, always consist of one Act, and include many episodes that are performed by Dhūrta or Viṭa.
111/ All the features of the Bhāṇa have been described by me according to tradition (āgama). [Now] I shall speak of the features of the Vīthi in the proper order.
Viṭi
112-113/ Vīthi must have one Act and be performed by two or one person. It should include characters of the highest, middle, or lowest type, may contain [any of] the rasas, and is of thirteen kinds. Now I shall speak of the peculiarities of all of them.
Thirteen kinds of Viti
114-115/ The thirteen kinds of Vīthī are: Chance interpretation (udghātyaka), Transference (avalagita), Ominous sign (avaspandita), Incoherent chatter (asat-pralāpa), Praise (prapañca), Riddle (nalī=nalikā), Repartee (vak-keli), Surpassing (adhivala), Deception (chala), Declaration (vyāhāra), Lamentation (mṛdava), Conversation of three (trigaṭa), and Inappropriate combination of words (gaṇḍa).
116/ [Any of] these thirteen types must always be connected with Vīti. Now I shall speak of their characteristics in due order.
Random interpretation
117/ If, wishing to explain them, people connect words of obscure meaning with words other [than those intended by the speaker], this becomes an Incidental interpretation.
Transfer
118/ When [something] occurring in connection with one thing is used to achieve something else, — this becomes [an example of] Transference (avalagita).
An ominous sign
119/ That which [someone] mistakenly imparts (that is, creates) a favorable or unfavorable meaning (that is, a favorable or unfavorable rise) to words (that is, to the sense) spoken [by the interlocutor] — is [an example of] the Inauspicious Sign (avaspandita).
Incoherent chatter
120/ When a nonsensical question (that is, an utterance) is followed by an equally nonsensical answer, this is an instance of Incoherent Chatter (asat-pralāpa).
121/ When an educated person speaks correct words to a fool, but his words are not heeded, — this is [an example of] Incoherent Chatter.
Praise
122/ When comic and false words, supposedly being mutual praises of two persons, are uttered in the interest of one [of them], — this is an [example of] Praise (prapañca).
The Riddle and the Proverb
123/ A mysterious remark that evokes laughter (that is, accompanied by laughter) is called a Riddle (nālikā). A Repartee (vāk-keli) arises from a single or double reply.
Transcendence
124/ When the words of another person and one’s own words in the course of a dialogue lead to a mutual modification of each other, this is an [example of] Transcendence (adhivala).
Deception
125/ When, having lured [someone] with answers, they do something opposite through those very same answers, recognized as meaningless — this is [an instance of] Deception (chala).
Announcement
126/ If something [that may happen] is vividly described in the presence of the Hero and is likewise [openly] carried out there without any fear, — this is an [example of] Declaration (vyāhāra).
The crushing
127/ That which, due to a quarrel, [someone] presents the merits [of another] as faults, showing that [person] a [supposed] basis, and conversely, — is termed Crushing (mṛdava).
The conversation of the three
128/ When elevated words are divided among three [characters] together with the Comic rasa, this should be known as the Conversation of Three (trigata).
Inappropriate combination of words
129/ An inappropriate combination of words (ganda), according to the sages, arises from excitement, confusion, quarrel, abuse, and the profane speech of many people.
130-131/ If in a play any of these thirteen kinds with clear meaning occurs and possesses all the characters, rasas, and psychological states prescribed for them by the Śāstra — this is termed Vīthi. It may be enacted by one or two persons.
Lāsyā
132/ Other constituent parts are joined to the Nāṭaka in connection with the performance of Lāsyā; they originate from it (that is, from the Nāṭaka) and must be enacted, like the Bhāṇa, by a single person.
133/ Lāsya has a form similar to that of Bhāṇa, and should be performed by a single person. Its action should be imaginary, like the action in Prakaraṇa, and should be connected with many psychological states.
Twelve kinds of Lāsyā
134-135/ The twelve kinds of Lāsya are: Geyapada, Sthitapāṭhya, Āsīna (pāṭhya), Puṣpagaṇḍikā, Pratychedaka, Trimūḍhā, Saindhavā, Dvimūḍhakā, Uttamottamakā, Vicitrapadā, Ukta-pratyuktā, and Bhāvitā (Bhāva).
Geyapada
136/ When [the Heroine,] seated amidst stringed instruments and drums, sings songs without their accompaniment, this is termed Geyapada (simple song).
137/ If a woman, seated, sings a song in praise of her beloved and embodies it through dance with gestures of various parts of the body, this is termed Geyapada.
Sthitapāṭhya
138/ If a woman separated from her lover, burning with the fire of love, recites something in Prakrit while resting in her place, this is [an example of] Sthitapāṭhyā.
Asina (pathya)
139/ When [someone] sits without tidying oneself, and is overcome with anxiety and grief, and glances sideways — this is [an example of] Āsīna (pathya).
Pushpagandika
140/ When a woman dressed as a man sweetly recites something in Sanskrit to the delight of her friends, this is [an example of] Puṣpagandikā.
Prachhedaka
141/ When a [separated] woman, suffering from moonlight, prepares to go to her beloved, even if he has treated her badly, this is an [example of] Pracchedakā.
Trimudhaka
142/ A play adorned with even meters, abounding in heroic sentiments, and composed of words that are neither harsh nor grand, is called Trimudhaka.
Saindhavaka
143/ When [someone] portrays a lover who has failed to appear for a rendezvous and expresses his sorrow in Prakrit through well-executed karaṇas, this is [an example of] Saindhavakī.
Dvimukhaka
144/ The embodiment of a song of the Caturasra type with auspicious meaning, having clear psychological states and rasas, with feigned effort, is called Dvimudhakā.
Uttamottamaka
145/ Uttamottamaka is composed of various types of ślokas; it includes diverse rasas and is adorned with the state of Passion (helā).
Vicitrapāda
146/ If any woman, burning with the fire of love, calms her mind by gazing at a portrait [of her beloved], this is an [example of] Vicitrapada.
Uktā-pratyukta
147/ Ukta-pratyukta is a duet (that is, a dialogue) expressing anger or joy, and [sometimes] contains words of reproach. It should contain something interesting in the song.
Bhavita
148/ If a woman, burning with the fire of love, having seen her beloved in a dream, expresses [her] various psychological states — this is an [example of] Bhavita.
149/ Such are the features of the [various] types of Lāśya, which it was my duty to relate to you in detail. If anything else has not been said, it is only because nothing more is required in this connection.
150/ The rules concerning the ten types of drama with their characteristics have been set forth by me. Now I shall speak of their body and of the Links with their characteristics.
Here ends chapter XX of Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra, devoted to the Ten kinds of drama.