Bharata Muni
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1/ Great ṛṣis are revered even by the gods, therefore they should be addressed as “bhagavān” (“sacred”), and their wives likewise.
2/ Gods, faces clad in the garb of a sectarian teacher, and faces observing various vows, should be addressed as “bhagavan” — by both men and women.
3/ Brahman is called “ārya” (“noble”), and the king is called “mahārāja” (“great king”). The teacher is called “ācārya” (“instructor”), and the elder is called “tāta” (“father”).
4/ Brahmans may address kings by name at their discretion. This should be taken as a matter of course, for Brahmans are revered by kings.
5/ Brahmins should address the minister as «amātya» («counselor») or «saciva» («minister»), while all others below the Brahmins should always address him as «ārya» («lord»).
6/ An equal should be addressed by the name by which he is called. However, a person of higher status may be called by name by a subordinate as well, if the latter is permitted to do so.
7/ To men and women who are in someone’s service, as well as to artisans and artists, one should address them according to their position.
8/ A respected person is addressed as “bhava” (“venerable sir”), and one who is slightly less significant is addressed as “marsha” (“comrade”). An equal is addressed as “vayasya” (“brother”), and a person of low birth is addressed as “ham-ho” (“hey, you”).
9/ The charioteer should always address the one riding in the chariot as “āyuṣman” (“long-lived”). An ascetic or one who has attained tranquility (praśānta) is addressed as “sādho” (“virtuous”).
10/ The heir to the throne is addressed as “svāmin” (“lord”), and the other princes as “bhartṛdāraka” (“young lord”). Those of lower rank are addressed as “śaumya” (“pleasant”), “bhadramukha” (“handsome”), and these addresses are preceded by the exclamation “he”.
11/ In the play, a character should be addressed by a term corresponding to his origin or occupation, to the art or learning which he pursues.
12/ A pupil or son is addressed by the guru or father as “vatsa” (“child”), “putraka” (“sonny”), “tāta” (“father”) — or by his own name or the name of the clan (gotra).
13/ Buddhist and Jain (nirgrantha) monks are addressed as “bhadanta” (“venerable”). Followers of other sects are addressed as prescribed by their own rules.
14/ Servants and subjects address the king as “deva” (“lord”), and when he is the supreme sovereign over other kings, his servants always call him “bhaṭṭa” (“sovereign”).
15/ Ṛṣis (sages) address the king as «rājan» («king») or by patronymic. The jester, however, calls him «vāyasya» («friend») or «rājan» («king»).
16/ The queen and her attendants are called “bhavati” (“lady”) by the jester.
17/ The jester is called by the king’s name or “vaiśya” (“friend”).
18/ All young women should address their husband as “āryaputra” (“son of a noble”); in other cases, the husband is addressed simply as “ārya” (“noble”), and if he is a king — also as “maharāja”.
19/ The elder brother is addressed as “ārya” (“noble one”), the younger — as a son. Such are the forms of address to the male characters of the play.
Now I will set forth the forms of address to the female characters of the play.
20/ To women ascetics and goddesses, the address is “bhagavatī” (“sacred”).
21/ The wives of respected elders and the wives of royal officials (sthānīya) are addressed as “bhavatī” (“lady”). An accessible woman (gāmya) is addressed as “bhadre” (“good woman”), and an elderly one as “ambā” (“mother”).
22/ In the play, servants and attendants address the king’s wives as “bhattini” (“mistress”), “svāminī” (“lady”), and “devī” (“goddess”).
23/ Of these addresses, “devī” refers to the chief queen (mahiṣī) — both from the servants and the king himself. The king’s other wives are referred to simply as “svāminī”.
24/ Unmarried princesses are called “bhartṛdārikā” (“young mistress”) by their attendants.
25/ The elder sister is addressed as “bhaginī” (“sister”), the younger one as “vatse” (“child”).
26/ A woman brahmin, a nun (liṅgastha), or a female ascetic (vratinī) is addressed as “āryā” (“noble lady”). A wife is addressed as “āryā” or by mentioning the name of her father or son.
27/ Friends of equal status call out to each other with the word “hala.” A noble woman summons a servant (preṣya) with the exclamation “ham-je” (“hey, child”).
28/ The courtesan is called Ajuka by her attendants, and when she is old, the other characters in the play call her Attā.
29/ In love scenes, everyone except the king may address his wife as “priyā” (“beloved”). The wives of priests and merchants should always be referred to as “āryā”.
Composers should always give meaningful names to those characters who are not known and whom they themselves have created.
30/ Brahmins and kṣatriyas in a play should be given names corresponding to their lineage or profession, ending in “śarman” or “varman”.
31/ The names of merchants should end in “datta.” Warriors should be given names indicating great valor.
32/ The wives of the king should be given names associated with the idea of victory (vijaya). The names of courtesans should end in “datta,” “mitra,” and “sena.”
33/ In the play, servant girls should be given names of various flowers. The names of servants should carry a meaning of auspiciousness.
34/ Noble characters should be given names of profound meaning, so that their deeds align with these names.
35/ Other persons should be given names corresponding to their origin and occupation. The names that should be given to men and women in a play have been described by me in the proper manner.
36/ Names in a play must always be created by the author in exactly this way.
Having learned exhaustively about the rules of language in drama, one should practice declamation (recitation), which must possess six alaṅkāras. Now I will describe the qualities of declamation. In it there are seven notes, three vocal registers, four varṇas (ways of pronouncing notes), two methods of intonation (kāku), six alaṅkāras, and six members (aṅga).
Seven notes: ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha, gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata and niṣāda. They are used with various rasas (emotional states).
37/ In the rasas śṛṅgāra (erotic) and hāsya (comic), the notes madhyama and pañcama should be used. In the rasas vīra (heroic), raudra (furious), and adbhuta (marvelous) — the notes ṣaḍja and ṛṣabha. In the rasa karuṇa (pathetic) — the notes gāndhāra and niṣāda, and in the rasas bībhatsa (odious) and bhayānaka (terrible) — dhaivata.
Three vocal registers: chest (uras), throat, and head.
38/ In the human body, just as on the vīṇā, the notes and their pitches originate from three registers: chest, throat, and head.
39/ When calling to someone who is far away, one should use notes of the head register; when addressing someone who is not too far, notes of the throat register; and to someone nearby, notes of the chest register.
40/ During declamation, a phrase begun in the chest register must be raised to the head register, and at the end — lowered to the throat register.
41/ In declamation there are four accents: udātta (rising), anudātta (falling), svarita (circumflex) and kampita (trembling). Svarita and udātta suit the rasas hāsya and śṛṅgāra; udātta and kampita suit the rasas vīra, raudra and adbhuta; anudātta, svarita and kampita suit the rasas karuṇa, bībhatsa and bhayānaka.
Two ways of intoning: sākāṅkṣa (with expectation of continuation) and nirākāṅkṣa (without expectation). They relate to the uttered statement.
42/ An utterance that has not fully expressed its meaning is called sākāṅkṣa (implying continuation); an utterance that has fully expressed its meaning is called nirākāṅkṣa (not implying continuation). Sākāṅkṣa corresponds to the pronunciation of a phrase whose meaning is incomplete — with notes of the chest and throat registers, beginning with a high note and ending with a low one (mandra), with an unfinished varṇa and alaṅkāra. Nirākāṅkṣa corresponds to the pronunciation of a phrase with a completed meaning, with notes of the head register, beginning with a low note (mandra) and ending with a high one (tāra), with a completed varṇa and alaṅkāra.
43/ The six alaṅkāras [notes in] recitation: high (uccha), excited (dīpta), low (mandra), soft (nīca), fast (druta) and slow (vilambita). Listen to their characteristics.
The high note originates from the head register and has a high pitch (tāra); it is used when addressing someone who is far away, in objection, confusion, when calling from a distance, in intimidation, in a state of suffering, and the like.
The excited note emanates from the head register and has an ultra-high pitch (tāratāra); it is used in reproach, dispute, discussion, indignation, abusive speech, challenge, anger, valor, pride, harsh and severe words, reprimand, lamentation, and the like.
The low note emanates from the chest register; it is applied in dejection, weakness, anxiety, impatience, depression, illness, a deep wound from a weapon, fainting, intoxication, the utterance of secret words, and the like.
A quiet note emanates from the chest register but has a very low pitch (mandratara); it is used in ordinary conversation, illness, fatigue from austerities and a long journey, panic, falling, fainting, and the like.
A quick note comes from the throat register and is swift; it is used when women lull children (lālana), in refusing a love claim (manmana), in love passion, fear, cold, heat, panic, agitation, secret and desperate actions, pain, and the like.
A slow note emanates from the throat register and has a somewhat lowered pitch; it is used in love, reflection, discernment, anger, envy, the expression of what is difficult to put into words, shyness, anxiety, threat, surprise, reproach, prolonged illness, contraction, and the like.
44/ For embodying various rasas, the intonation (kaku) should be high, excited, and quick in cases of objection, confusion, sharp reproach, depiction of harshness and rudeness, agitation, weeping, calling out to an absent person, threat, intimidation, hailing from a distance, and reprimand.
45/ Intonation should be low and quiet in illness, fever, grief, hunger, thirst, observance of a restrictive vow (niyama), reflection, a deep wound from a weapon, utterance of confidential words, anxiety, and a state of asceticism.
46/ The intonation should be low and quick when lulling children (lalla), when rejecting a love claim (manmana), in panic and shivering.
47/ The intonation should be slow, excited, and soft when following after something lost once it has been seen, upon news of something undesirable concerning a desired object or person, when conveying something desirable, in mental reflection, madness, envy, reproach, uttering what cannot be fully expressed in words, telling stories, objection, confusion, excessive action, a painful and injured limb, suffering, grief, astonishment, jealous anger, joy, and lamentation.
48/ A low and slow intonation is prescribed for words that carry a pleasant meaning and bring joy.
49/ An excited and high intonation is prescribed for words expressing harshness and rudeness. Thus, stage directors should give the recitation various intonations.
50/ Slow intonation is desirable in the rasas hāsya, śṛṅgāra, and karuṇa. In the rasas vīra, raudra, and adbhuta, excited intonation is praised. Fast and quiet intonation is prescribed for the rasas bhayānaka and bībhatsa. Thus, intonation should follow the psychological states (bhāva) and rasas.
Now about the six members [of delivery]: viccheda (division), arpaṇa (presentation), visarga (completion), anubandha (continuity), dīpana (brightness), and praśamana (calming). Viccheda is conditioned by the pause (virāma). Arpaṇa means declamation that fills the hall with graceful modulation of the voice. Visarga means the completion of a phrase. Anubandha means the absence of a break between words [of a semantic group] or their utterance without a delay in breath. Dīpana means gradually intensifying notes issuing from the three vocal registers (sthāna), and Praśamana means the lowering of high notes without violating euphony.
51/ On their application in connection with the various rasas: in the rasas hāsya and śṛṅgāra, the recitation should include arpanā, viccheda, dīpanā, and praśamanā. In the rasa karuṇā — dīpanā and praśamanā. In the rasas vīra, raudra, and adbhuta, viccheda, praśamanā, dīpanā, and anubandha should predominate. In the rasas bībhatsa and bhayānaka — visarga and viccheda.
All these means are applied with notes of high, low, and middle pitch, emanating from [three vocal registers]. When addressing someone who is far away, the notes should be high, from the head register; to someone not too far away, — middle, from the throat; to someone nearby, — low, from the chest. However, one should not transition from low pitch to high, nor from high to low. Three kinds of tempo of these notes are applied in various rasas: in the hāsya and śṛṅgāra rasas, the tempo should be medium; in the karuṇa rasa, slow; and in the vīra, raudra, adbhuta, bībhatsa, and bhayānaka rasas, fast.
The pause (virāma) in utterance is conditioned by the completion of meaning and depends on the situation (practical context), not on the meter. Why? Because in practice, the pause may occur even after one, two, three, or four syllables, for example:
52/ «Kim? Gaccha. Mā viśa. Sudurjana. Varito’si. Kāryaṁ tvayā na mama. Sarva-janopabhukta.» (“What? Go away. Do not enter. You are excluded, O vilest of men, the delight of all — I have no concern with you.”)
Thus, in the play, words with a small number of syllables occur in the cases of sūci and aṅkura [connected with the pause]. Therefore, one should carefully observe the pause. Why? Because [observing] the pause clarifies the meaning. On this point, there is a couplet:
53/ In [verbal] performance, directors must always carefully observe the pause, for on it depends the meaning [of the spoken words].
54/ Keeping the gaze in the direction toward which both hands move, one should carry out the verbal representation, observing proper pauses to indicate the [implied] meaning.
55/ In the rasas vīra and raudra, the hands are primarily occupied with weapons; in the rasa bībhatsa, they are bent in contempt; in the rasa hāsya, they point at [something]; in the rasa karuṇa, they are lowered; in the rasa adbhuta, they remain motionless from astonishment.
56/ And in other similar cases, the meaning should be clarified through alaṅkāras and pauses.
57/ The pauses prescribed in the verse require alaṅkāras. A pause should be observed after a word when meaning or breath (prāṇa) demands it. When words and syllables are combined into a [large] compound word, or the delivery is rapid, or confusion may arise from different meanings, the pause should be made at the end of a foot or as breath requires. In other cases, the pause is determined by meaning. Here one should know of the four kinds of syllables called “stretched syllables” (kṛṣyākṣara), corresponding to the appropriate rasas and psychological states.
58/ A consonant ending in a long vowel — o, e, ai, or au — is called a “stretched syllable.” In a state of sorrow, during a dispute, questioning, or indignation, such a syllable should be pronounced observing the proper time measures (kālas).
59/ Other syllables may be pronounced with a pause determined by their meaning, and such a pause may last one, two, three, four, five, or six kalās.
60/ The longer the pause, the longer the syllable pronounced. However, its duration should not exceed six kalās.
61/ Or, taking into account the practice conditioned by some cause or specific circumstance, one should observe a pause in the verse in accordance with the psychological state or rasa.
62/ In the verse, only pauses arising from the division into feet are recognized; however, their position may be altered on stage by experts depending on the meaning [of the passage].
63/ When [observing a pause as described above], one should not create ungrammatical words (apaśabda) or spoil the metre; one should not make pauses too long except at caesura points; and in words expressing sorrow, one should not make the intonation excited (dīpta).
64/ One should recite a dramatic work free from literary flaws, possessing the best characteristics and [literary] merits; in such recitation, one should observe the proper rules for the pronunciation of notes and their alaṅkāras.
65/ The alaṅkāras and pauses prescribed for recitation in Sanskrit must be fully observed also in recitation in non-Sanskrit (Prakrit) languages.
66/ Thus, when staging the ten types of dramatic works, directors should construct recitation in accordance with the observance of the proper note, kāla, time (tāla), and tempo (laya).
67/ The rules of intonation have been set forth by me in the proper order. Next, I will describe the ten types of dramatic works.
Here ends chapter XIX of the «Nāṭyaśāstra» of Bharata, devoted to intonation in connection with verbal representation.