Bharata Muni
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The excellent qualities of a dramatic composition
1-5/ The text lists thirty-six excellent qualities (lakṣaṇa) of a dramatic composition: refinement (bhūṣaṇa), compactness (akṣara-saṃghāta), brilliance (śobhā), parallelism (udāharaṇa), causation (hetu), vacillation (saṃśaya), favorable precedent (dṛṣṭānta), discovery (prāpti), invention (abhiprāya), unfavorable precedent, convincing explanation, persuasion, discrimination, accusation of virtues, superiority, inference by similarity, multiple definition, apt description, witty utterance, reflection, address, reservation, mediation, series of sentences, adroit manners, censure, supposition, fame, interrogation, identity, indirect expression of desire, wit, concealment, enumeration of merits, half-uttered expression, and praise.
Definitions of each quality
6/ Refinement (bhūṣaṇa): imparting to the composition figures of speech and qualities, arranged like ornaments.
7/ Compactness (akṣara-saṅghāta): expression of an astonishing meaning through few syllables possessing a double meaning (śleṣa).
8/ Brilliance (śobhā): the introduction of lesser-known meanings alongside well-known ones to lend distinction.
9/ Parallelism (udāharaṇa): the use of sentences expressing similar situations to indicate the achievement of goals.
10/ Hetu (cause): a brief, pleasant sentence that achieves the desired goals through tactful usage.
11/ Kolebanie (saṃśaya): unfinished sentences without fully communicating essential themes due to a multitude of considerations.
12/ Favorable precedent (dṛṣṭānta): a statement that supports someone’s cause and is pleasing to all people.
13/ Detection (prāpti): an assumption about the existence of something upon observing its signs.
14/ Fiction (abhiprāya): the conception of entertaining ideas based on the similarity of objects.
15/ Unfavorable precedent: mention of well-known examples that reject opposing views.
16/ Convincing explanation: words that reinforce the flawless statements made earlier.
17/ Persuasion: mentioning the names of significant individuals to achieve goals.
18/ Distinction: distinguishing things from universally known great objects.
19/ Accusation through virtues: mentioning virtues in sweet words carrying a severe undertone.
20/ Excellence: enumeration of general qualities, followed by mention of the specific ones.
21/ Inference by similarity: deriving improbable objects from metaphors and comparisons in a similar sense.
22/ Multiple definition: the use of multiple words forming various groups for the same purpose.
23/ Appropriate description: description of objects and events in accordance with place, time, or related circumstances.
24/ An apt saying: speech with a happy ending, grounded in the śāstras, delighting the learned.
25/ Reflection: establishing unperceived things in accordance with the previously expressed meaning.
26/ Reversal: a change of reflection due to doubt arising from what has been seen.
27/ A disclaimer: a manifold sudden deviation from the intended words to something else.
28/ Mediation: words that please two persons with opposing intentions.
29/ A series of propositions: pointing to the numerous needs of a person for achieving desired goals.
30/ Skillful manners: addressing another with a pleased expression, sweet speech, and pleasant movements.
31/ Blame: mentioning shortcomings as merits or condemning merits as shortcomings.
32/ Supposition: understanding objects from a sweet-worded mention of something.
33/ Fame: expression through excellent words with mention of universally known deeds.
34/ Questioning: the act of questioning oneself or another through gesticulating words.
35/ Identity: sudden agitation from the similarity between perceived things.
36/ Indirect expression of desire: expressing a secret desire by feigned reference to someone else.
37/ Wit: words uttered skillfully by adept disputants, pertaining to similar subjects.
38/ Attribution: taking on others’ faults oneself or attributing them to a flawless person.
39/ Enumeration of virtues: attributing the virtues of outstanding people to one person.
40/ Semi-expressed expression: understanding the remaining part of the object from its beginning without full expression.
41/ Praise: the utterance of words in a pleasing manner in honor of a worthy person.
42/ These thirty-six qualities should adorn plays and be applied in accordance with the rasas.
Four figures of speech (alaṅkāras)
43/ In drama, four figures of speech are available: comparison (upamā), metaphor (rūpaka), condensed expression (dīpaka), and yamaka.
Comparison (upamā)
44/ Comparison is the likening of something on the basis of similarity in a poetic composition.
45-48/ Four types of comparison: one with one (a face is like the moon), many with one (stars are like the moon), one with many (eyes are like the eyes of a falcon, a peacock, and a kite), many with many (elephants are like clouds).
49/ Five varieties: laudatory (praśaṃsa), disparaging (nindā), fictitious (kalpita), identical (sādṛśi), partially similar (kiṃcit sādṛśi).
50-54/ Examples of each variety: śloka 50 shows a laudatory comparison, likening a contented king to contented sages.
55/ Varieties of comparisons are gathered from poetic compositions and folk songs.
Metaphor (rūpaka)
56/ The image of weak similarity, conceived from indecision regarding objects with similar members.
57/ Example: a lake-woman with lotus faces and swans.
Condensed expression (dīpaka)
58/ The combination of words from various themes in one sentence for mutual illumination.
59/ An example describing the fullness created by swans, flowers, bees, and friendly gatherings.
Yamaka
60/ Repetition of words at the beginning of feet and in other places.
61-63/ Ten kinds of yamaka:
64-65/ Padanta-yamaka: similar syllables at the end of all four pādas. Example: the solar disc at sunset, likened to the breast of a maiden.
66-67/ Kāñcī-yamaka: similar words at the beginning and end of each foot. An example concerning the hours of lunar nights.
68-69/ Samudga-yamaka: the same half-verse is repeated to complete the verse. Example with the elephant and ketakī buds.
70-71/ Vikrānta-yamaka: two alternating feet are similar. An example with an elephant losing its tusks.
72-73/ Cakravāla-yamaka: the final word of a foot is like the initial word of the following foot. An example describing the victims of battle.
74-75/ Sandashta-yamaka: two words at the beginning of a foot are similar. An example about the qualities of the beloved.
76-77/ Pādadi-yamaka: the same word at the beginning of each foot. Example with the repetition of the name Viṣṇu.
78-79/ Amredita-yamaka: the final words of a foot are reduplicated. Example with yawning and sighs.
80-81/ Catur-vyavasita-yamaka: all feet consist of similar syllables. An example concerning the colors of varanas and elephants.
82-85/ Mālā-yamaka: one consonant with different vowels in different words. Examples: protective spell for Balarāma; woman and beloved; lotus-eyed warrior.
Ten defects (doṣa)
86/ Compositions should be created with consideration of the functions of excellent qualities; next come the defects.
87/ Ten kinds of defects: verbosity (gudhārtha), excessive expression (arthāntara), meaninglessness (arthahīna), defective meaning (bhinnārtha), tautology (ekārtha), lack of coherence (abhiplutārtha), logical flaw (nyāyadapeta), metrical flaw (viṣama), hiatus (visandhi), colloquialism (śabdacyuta).
88/ Verbosity: the use of artificial synonyms. Redundancy: the mention of unnecessary things.
89/ Meaninglessness: irrelevant or incomplete expressions. Defective meaning: unpolished expressions, or colloquial language, or an altered intended meaning.
90/ Continuation of the definition of defective meaning.
91/ Tautology: indiscriminate use of many words for a single purpose. Lack of coherence: sentences completed within each foot and not connected in meaning.
92/ Logical flaw: lack of reasoning. Metrical flaw: violation of metrical structure. Hiatus: words left separate instead of being joined in sandhi.
93/ Vernacular: adding vulgar words.
Virtues (guṇas)
94/ The guṇas are negations of defects, distinguished by sweetness and depth of meaning.
95/ The ten qualities: coherence (śleṣa), clarity (prasāda), smoothness (samatā), concentration (samādhi), sweetness (mādhurya), grandeur (ojas), pleasantness (saukumārya), directness of expression (artha-vyakti), sublimity (udāra), charm (kānti).
96/ Connectivity (śleṣa): the joining of words connected through the intended meaning.
97/ Clarity (prasāda): the comprehension of unspoken words and meaning through easily understandable language.
98/ Smoothness (samatā): the alaṃkāras and guṇas correspond to each other and mutually illuminate one another.
99/ Concentration (samādhi): careful compression of meanings from comparisons and figures.
100/ Sweetness (mādhurya): a statement, heard and uttered repeatedly, does not weary or cause aversion.
101/ Majesty (ojas): a commendable composition that conveys sublime meaning through words rich in sound and sense.
102/ Pleasantness (saukumarya): easily pronounceable words, euphonically combined, creating a pleasant impression.
103/ Directness of expression (artha-vyakti): the meaning grasped by a discerning mind upon reading.
104/ Elevation (udāra): a composition that includes witty, elegant words with astonishing special meanings.
105/ Kānti (charm): a composition that delights the ear and mind through well-arranged words.
Application in accordance with the rasas
106/ Figures of speech, flaws, and guṇas are applied in connection with the various rasas.
107/ The heroic (vīra), furious (raudra), wondrous (adbhuta) rasas: light syllables with comparisons and metaphors.
108-109/ The loathsome (bībhatsa) and sorrowful (karuṇa) rasas: heavy syllables.
110/ Dialogues of the heroic rasa: the meters Jagatī, Atijagatī, Saṃkṛti. For battles and turmoil: Utkṛti.
111/ The sorrowful rasa: the Śakkari and Atidhṛti meters.
112/ The furious rasa uses the meters of the heroic rasa; the other rasas – use meters suitable to the intended meaning.
113/ Short, long, and overlong vowels represent various rasas and bhāvas.
114/ Vowel intonation: one mātra – short, two mātras – long, three mātras – overlong.
115/ Superlong vowels are used in recollection, indignation, lamentation, and Vedic recitation.
116/ Certain syllables: “ā” – in recollection, “ū” – in indignation, “hā” – in lamentation, “om” – in Vedic recitation.
117/ The remaining syllables are made short, long, or overlong depending on rasa and bhāva.
118/ Even and uneven meters are used with pleasant, soft sounds in accordance with the meaning.
119/ The playwright should use sweet, pleasant words spoken by women; plays are adorned like lotus lakes with swans.
120/ The refined dramatic art with coarse words like “chekridita” does not appear beautiful, like a courtesan among brahmins with ritual implements.
121/ A play with pleasant sounds and meanings, without obscure words, understandable to villagers, with skillful speeches for dances, developing the rasas through characters, with proper sandhis – becomes suitable for performance before an audience.
Thus ends the seventeenth chapter, which treats of the excellent qualities of good plays in verbal presentation.