Bharata Muni
| ← Chapter 32 | Chapter 34 → |
1-2/ I briefly spoke about stringed instruments. Now I will tell about the class of covered musical instruments, their characteristics and functions, as well as about playing drums named mṛdaṅga, paṇava and dardura.
3/ It is said that Svati and Narada spoke about the gandharva and the playing of musical instruments.
The origin of drums
4-7/ Following Svati’s instructions, the text presents a mythological narrative about the invention of drums. During the monsoon season, Svati visited a lake where heavy rain created sounds on lotus leaves. Hearing “high, middle, and low sounds arising on lotus leaves — deep, sweet, and pleasant,” he created mṛdaṅgas and puṣkaras with divine assistance.
8-10/ With the help of Viśvakarman, the instruments were created. Observing the dundubhi, he then also created the murajā, āliṅgya, ūrdhvaka, and āṅkika. They were covered with skin and bound with strings.
Main and secondary parts
11-13/ Among wooden instruments, vīpañcī and citrā serve as the principal parts, while kacchapī and ghoṣakā are secondary. For drums: mṛdaṅga, dardura, and paṇava are the principal parts; jhallarī and paṭaha are secondary. The flute represents the characteristics of a principal part; the conch and dakkini are secondary.
Usage and general description
14-16/ It is described in detail when one should play instruments: “At a festival, in a royal procession, in a maṅgala ceremony, on an auspicious and joyful occasion, during a wedding and the birth of sons and the like, in battle, where many warriors gather” — all instruments are required. Household matters require fewer instruments.
17-18/ Covered instruments “produce correct notes, have many karaṇas and jātis.” The three puṣkaras possess “an absence of harshness of sound, unlike other instruments,” and require ordered strokes and distinct syllables.
Elements of performance on the puṣkara
19-20/ The essential aspects of performance on the puṣkara are enumerated: “sixteen syllabic sounds, four mārgas, vilepana, six karaṇas, three yatis, three lāyas, three gatis, three pracāras, three yogas, three pāṇis, five pāṇi-prahātas, three prahāras, three mārjanas, eighteen jātis, and twenty prakāras.”
21/ Sixteen syllabic sounds: k, kh, g, gh, ṭ (retroflex), ṭh, ḍ (retroflex), ṇ (retroflex), t, th, d, dh, m, r, l, and h.
Extraction of consonants and vowels
22-24/ It is indicated which sounds are produced on the various sides of the drum and instruments. The right sides produce k, ṭ (retroflex), r, t, ṭh (retroflex), d, dh; the left sides produce g, h, and th. Ūrdhvaka uses th; āliṅgya uses k, r, ṇ (retroflex), dh, v, and l.
25/ Detailed vowel combinations describe how vowels are attached to consonants to create specific sounds. For example: “To K, a, i, u, e, o, and am can be added to produce ka, ki, ku, ke, ko, and kam.”
26/ It is noted that kh and m are used without vowels, and certain consonants (k, gh, t, th, dh) carry r as an appendage (anubandha).
Five hand strikes
27-28/ Five types of strokes are defined: the even hand (samapāṇi), the half hand (ardhapāṇi), the quarter-side (ardhārdhapāṇi), the side hand (pārśvapāṇi), and the index finger (pradeśinī). Each class of strokes reflects a degree of control — controlled, semi-controlled, or free.
Four mārga
29-30/ The four modal paths: ādita combines the strokes of āliṅgya and mṛdaṅga; ālipta combines vāmaka and ūrdhvaka; vitasta combines ūrdhvaka and aṅkika; and gomukha mixes all the puṣkaras, predominantly with the strokes of āliṅgya.
31/ Detailed syllabic examples are given for each mārga, such as the āddita strokes: “ghaṭṭam, kaṭṭhita ghaṭṭam ghenta ghaṭṭam gaṭṭhimam gaṭṭhi ghantam gaṭṭhi”.
Pracāras and the application of mārgas
32-34/ There are three pracāras (patterns of hand movement): sama, viṣama, and sama-viṣama.
35/ The mārgas correspond to emotional contexts: the rasas śṛṅgāra (erotic) and hāsya (comic) use āddita; the rasas vīra (heroic), adbhuta (marvelous), and raudra (furious) use vitasta; the rasa karuṇa (pathetic) uses ālīpta; and the rasas bībhatsa (odious) and bhayānaka (terrifying) use gomukha.
Playing the dardura and panava
36-37/ Three types of playing are distinguished: ativādita (before the performance), anuvādya (following the performance), and samavādita (simultaneous with the performance).
38/ The syllabic sounds for the paṇava are given: “k, kh, g, pn, dh, r, v, aṅg, pr, h, nad br hulan dhra hu lam.”
39-46/ Detailed technical execution for both instruments, including finger technique using the little finger and ring finger, as well as various combinations of karaṇas. The descriptions include creating resonance, controlling the cut and freely cut sides of the drum, and producing characteristic sounds through controlled hand movements.
The karaṇas of the three pūṣkaras
47-48/ Six karaṇas: rūpa (production with two hands), kṛta-pratikṛta (one karaṇa from three puṣkaras), pratibheda (simultaneous karaṇas of mṛdaṅga followed by upari), rūpaśeṣa (indistinct karaṇas), pratiśuṣka (harmonious playing on several drums), and ogha (sonorous syllables in slow tempo). Each includes detailed syllabic examples.
Yatis, gatās, and correspondences of performance
49-52/ Three yatis (combinations of tempo and hands): sama, srotogata and gopuccha, each connected with certain rules of play (raddha, viddha, shayyagata).
53-57/ Three mārjanās (techniques of note placement): mayūrī, ardha-mayūrī, and karmāravī, each assigning specific notes to different drums in particular musical modes.
58-65/ Eight correspondences (samya) for drumming: correspondence in syllables, parts, tāla, tempo, yati, graha (starting point), nyāsopanyāsa (placement of notes), and pāṇi (type of hand).
Eighteen jāti
66/ Śuddha is defined as a play, “consisting of karaṇas of one or two syllables, which is suitable for use in all movements.”
67-68/ Ekarūpa is used for male singers and dhruvā songs in various tempos.
69-71/ Deśānurūpa is applied to the “śṛṅgāra rasa, including the enjoyment of love,” with the syllables “mi mathi thamabhu tthi kima,” especially for women.
72/ Deśad-apetarūpa in fast tempo for the “karuṇa rasa” with the syllables “ghedraṅ ghedraṅ ghe gheru”.
73-75/ Paryāya (repetition in all tempos) and viṣkambha (combination of heavy and light syllables) for heroic and love contexts.
76-78/ Paryasta (play in all mārgas with single-syllable karaṇas), sambhrama (for lower-class women), and pārśni-samasta (quick play with heel strikes for amorous and comic movements).
79/ Duṣkara-karaṇa-jāti includes strikes on all mṛdaṅgas with “svastika hand movements” in various tempos. This difficult style suits supernatural beings—kings of daityas and rākṣasas.
80-81/ Urdhva-goṣṭhikā is performed “almost furiously” in vitasta-mārga, intended for the movements of celestial characters.
82/ Uccitikā-jāti — a play that “includes all mārgas, linked in an elusive chain,” is applied to ordinary royal movements.
83-84/ Evam-vādya-jāti uses all the strokes of the mṛdaṅga with gomukhī syllables, and is applied for the pantomime of juggling and the movements of crippled persons.
85-88/ The eighteen jāti conclude: avakīrṇa, ardhavakīrṇa, samplava and vidhūta, each with a specific application to various dramatic situations and types of characters.
Gathas and performance context
89-92/ Drummers should apply the three ghatas (tattva, anugata, ogha) in accordance with the types of songs and the movements of the characters, with careful attention to “heavy and sparse syllables,” coordinating vocal and instrumental elements.
Twenty prakāras
93-100/ The stylistic variations are listed: citra (multiple karaṇas with different hands), sama (coordinated with tāla and flutes), vibhakta (equally divided syllables), chhinna (sharp stops), viddha (crossing instrumental patterns), and others, up to dṛdha (medium tempo, harmonious conclusion).
The construction of the drums and materials
101-103/ Mṛdaṅgas and aṅkikas are “three and a half tālas in length” with sides of twelve fingers. Urdhvakas reach “four tālas” with diameters of fourteen fingers. Panavas are sixteen fingers in length with sides of eight and five fingers. Dardaras resemble bells—sixteen fingers in diameter with sides of twelve fingers.
The selection and preparation of leather
104-106/ Quality hides must be “free from tears, crow pecks, grease, smoke, and fire damage.” Cowhide “in color like a blossom, white as snow” is most suitable. After soaking overnight, the hides receive treatment and decorative designs, including layers of puṣpavarta and borders of kakṣa.
The installation ceremony
107-112/ Under favorable nakṣatras (chitrā or hastā), a qualified master creates three circles of cow dung, dedicated to Brahman, Śiva and Viṣṇu. Certain offerings accompany the placement of the drums: honey-pāyasa for āliṅgya, apūpa cakes for aṅkikā, as well as exquisite offerings, including flowers and colored garments.
Application to character types
113-116/ Male characters receive various patterns: gods — the sounds “bram” and “dhram”; kings — “ghemtam”; middle men — combinations of “dhram klam”. Female characters range from goddesses using “vamgati kipi” to courtesans with patterns “gha khu khu ghikita matthi”. Movements of chariots, boats, and celestial beings receive specialized rhythmic treatments.
Final verses: qualifications of the drummer
117-120/ Excellence in drumming requires mastery of songs, instruments, rhythm, and the “various pāṇi” (hand techniques). A quality performance demonstrates “distinct, clear, well-separated” strokes that remain “loud, yet controlled.”
121/ “Drumming was called the foundation of dramatic performance.” Properly executed drumming combined with singing prevents failures of a production, affirming percussion instruments as the basis of theatrical success.
Here ends the thirty-third chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata, which treats of covered instruments (avanaddha).