Bharata Muni
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1/ A feature in representation through gestures and the like, which arises from time to time but was not mentioned [earlier], being set forth in various ways, is known as pictorial representation.
2-4/ Indication of morning, evening, day, night, seasons, clouds, forests, water, directions, planets, and stars requires raised hands with patāka and svastika gestures, the head position udvāhita, and eyes directed upward.
5/ For objects on the ground, the same hand and head gestures are used, but the eyes are directed downward.
6/ Moonlight, happiness, air, taste, and smell are shown through gestures of touch and goosebumps (romāñca).
7/ Sun, dust, smoke, and fire are represented by covering the face with a garment; earthly and solar heat — by seeking shade.
8/ The midday sun is indicated by an upward gaze with half-closed eyes; sunrise and sunset — by representing depth.
9/ Pleasant things are conveyed through gestures of touching the body with goosebumps.
10/ Sharp objects are denoted by gestures of touching limbs, agitation, and a narrowed mouth.
11/ Deep and elevated feelings are conveyed through sauṣṭhava (grace) of the limbs and the expression of pride and self-conceit.
12/ Necklaces and garlands are indicated by both hands in the araḷa gesture held at the position of the sacred thread, separated from the svastika.
13/ “Wholeness” is shown by the movement of the index finger, looking around, and the pressing of the hand in alapallava.
14/ Audible objects are denoted by pointing to the ears, and visible ones by pointing to the eyes.
15/ Lightning, falling stars, thunder, sparks, and flame are shown with relaxed limbs and a motionless gaze.
16/ Repulsive objects are denoted by the hand gestures udveṣṭita and parāvṛtta, a tilted head, and a sidelong glance.
17/ Hot wind, celestial heat, reflection of dust, rain, insects, and bees are shown by covering the face.
18/ Lions, bears, monkeys, tigers, and animals are denoted by holding both hands in the padmakośa gesture at the bottom in the shape of a svastika.
19/ Worship of the elders’ feet uses the hands tripatāka and svastika; the goad and whip — the hands svastika and kaṭaka.
20-21/ Numbers from one to ten are shown with the corresponding fingers; tens, hundreds, and thousands are indicated with both hands in patāka.
22/ Numbers above ten are denoted by speech and indirect representation.
23/ Umbrellas, banners, and staffs are shown through the representation of holding a staff; weapons are indicated by the manner of holding them.
24/ Memory and reflection are shown by attention, lowered eyes, a bowed head, and the left hand in the sandamśa gesture.
25/ Offspring and height are denoted by the head in udvāhita and the hands in haṃsapakṣa, held on the right side.
26/ The past, cessation, destruction, and words that have been heard are indicated by bringing the hand in araḷa to the head on the left side.
Seasons
27/ Autumn is shown through sensory calm, clear horizons, and a beautiful landscape.
28/ Early winter is indicated by superior and intermediate characters through contracted limbs and the search for sun, fire, or warm clothing.
29/ Lower characters show early winter through groans, clicking, trembling of the head and lips, as well as chattering of teeth.
30/ Higher characters may similarly denote winter if they find themselves in distress by the will of fate.
31/ Winter is denoted by inhaling the fragrance of flowers, drinking wine, and feeling an unpleasant wind.
32/ Spring is shown through joyful actions, pleasures, festivities, and the display of various seasonal flowers.
33/ Summer is indicated by the heat of the earth, fanning, wiping away sweat, and the sensation of a hot wind.
34/ The rainy season is denoted through the flowers of kadamba, nimba, and kuṭaja, green grass, indragopa insects, and flocks of peacocks.
35/ A rainy night is shown through loud masses of clouds, falling streams of rain, lightning, and peals of thunder.
36/ Each season is indicated by appropriate signs, costumes, activities, decorations, or elements that are particularly desired or avoided.
37/ Seasons should be denoted by appropriate moods (rasa) — happiness for happy persons, grief for the sorrowful.
Psychological states
38/ Psychological states (bhāva) are indicated through the presentation of determinants (vibhāva); states are realized through the presentation of consequents (anubhāva).
39/ Actions connected with determinants are represented through the followers; psychological states pertain to one’s own representation, while determinants pertain to the representation of others.
40/ The teacher, friend, tender companion, or relative, duly declared, constitutes the determinant (vibhāva).
41/ Reverence shown by rising from one’s seat, offering gifts and a seat, as well as uttering respectful words, constitutes the followers (anubhāva).
42/ Various events reveal determinants and followers through observable actions.
43/ Replies to messages addressed to messengers are called followers marked by such a reply.
44/ The exponents and followers are represented by men and women.
45/ Men assume the vaiṣṇava posture; women use the āyata or avahittha posture in accordance with appropriate actions.
46/ In cases of special necessity, it is permitted to introduce other poses for representing various psychological states in special types of plays.
47/ Men’s efforts are characterized by patience and playfulness of limbs; women’s efforts — by graceful aṅgahāras.
48/ The movements of women’s hands, feet, and limbs should be graceful; men’s — restrained and energetic.
49/ The meanings of words are presented differently by men and women through psychological states and appropriate followers.
Joy
50/ Joy is indicated by embracing the body, smiling eyes, and goosebumps (romāñca).
51/ Actresses express joy through sudden goosebumps, eyes filled with tears, smiling words, and loving disposition.
Wrath
52/ Anger is indicated by rolling reddened eyes, biting the lip, deep breathing, and trembling of the limbs.
Jealous anger of women
53-54/ The jealous anger of women is shown through eyes full of tears, trembling of the chin and lips, shaking of the head, furrowing of the brows, silence, twisting of the fingers, removal of garlands and ornaments, and the adoption of the āyata posture.
Grief of men
55/ The grief of men is indicated by heavy breathing and sighs, pensiveness with a downcast gaze, and the addressing of speeches to the sky.
The Sorrow of Women
56/ Women’s grief is shown through weeping, sighs, beating the chest, falling to the ground, and striking themselves.
57/ Weeping from joy or jealousy is applied to women and to male characters of the inferior type.
Fear of men
58/ Fear in men is denoted by confusion, bewilderment, dropping of weapons, endurance, agitation, and strength.
Fear of women
59-60/ Fear in women is shown through the movement of the eyeballs, trembling, shaking of the limbs, frightened sidelong glances, seeking refuge, loud weeping, and wrapping the arms around loved ones.
Intoxication
61/ Intoxication is applied to women and to male characters of the inferior type.
61-62/ The intoxication of women is indicated through gently-stumbling movements, attempts to grasp the sky, rolling of the eyes, incoherent words, and trembling of the limbs.
63/ These rules follow a theatrical production for representing the psychological states of men and women, when the occasion arises.
64/ Psychological states of women should be graceful; those of men — endowed with self-control and composure.
Animal representation
65/ Parrots, balls, and small birds are denoted by two moving fingers in the tripatāka gesture.
66/ Large birds such as peacocks, cranes, and swans are denoted by the appropriate recakas and aṅgahāras.
67/ Donkeys, camels, elephants, lions, tigers, cows, and buffalo are represented through appropriate gaits and gestures.
The Representation of Invisible Beings
68-69/ Invisible bhūtas, piśācas, yakṣas, dānavas and rākṣasas are denoted through aṅgahāras; visible ones — through fear, confusion and astonishment.
70/ Invisible gods are denoted, when necessary, by worship and movements appropriate to the psychological state.
70-71/ The invisible greeting is indicated by touching the head with a raised hand, the arm held to the side.
71-72/ Gods, elders, and ladies are greeted by touching the head with the hand in katakāvardhamāna or kapota in like manner; appearing gods and venerable persons are indicated through the presentation of profound effect.
73-74/ Large crowds, friends, rogues and knaves are denoted by the hand gesture parimandala.
74-75/ Mountains with height and tall trees are denoted by raising extended arms upward.
75-76/ Wide sea waters are denoted by two patāka hands thrown outward; heroism, arrogance, pride, magnanimity, and upward-striving growth — by the arāla hand at the forehead.
77-78/ Two mṛgaśīrṣa hands, drawn away from the chest and quickly held at a distance, denote uncovered things.
78-79/ Darkness in a house, a hole, or a cave is denoted by slightly elongated palms turned downward.
79-80/ Persons who are love-sick, cursed, possessed, or weakened by fever are represented through appropriate movements of the face and limbs.
80-82/ Swings are represented through the depiction of motion, the swaying of limbs, and holding a rope; after this, the seated figures appear to be moving on a swing.
Four kinds of speech
82-83/ Now discussed are “speech to the sky” (ākāśavacana), “speech to oneself” (ātmagata), “concealed speech” (apavāritaka), and “private address” (janāntika).
83-85/ Addressing persons who are absent, invisible, or not directly nearby is “speech to the sky,” representing dialogue through responses connected to various questions arising in the play.
85-87/ Speech arising from excessive joy, intoxication, madness, passion, disgust, fear, astonishment, anger, and grief is “speech to oneself”; it is often used in plays of the nāṭaka type.
87-88/ “Hidden speech” refers to a secret; “private address” occurs when persons standing nearby are presumed not to hear what others are saying.
88-89/ Private address pertains to self-deliberation and feeling, constituting a variety of speech to oneself.
89-90/ Words connected with a secret are spoken into the ear, preceded by the words “so, so”; events that happened earlier, to avoid repetition, are likewise spoken into the ear.
91/ Without confusion, one should resort to speech addressed to the sky, private address, and speech to oneself, pertaining to visible or invisible persons, to oneself or others.
92/ Hidden speech and private address are indicated by the tripatāka hand covering the speaker.
Repetition of words
93/ Words uttered in confusion, calamity, anger, and deep grief are repeated.
94/ One should utter words like “woe is me,” “alas,” “what,” “say no more” and repeat them twice or thrice.
95/ Distorted or unfinished words should not be explained through gestures.
Rules for characters of various ranks
96/ Higher psychological states should not be applied to middle characters; middle ones — to lower ones.
97/ Various psychological states and moods arising from superior, intermediate, and inferior movements make plays appealing.
Dreams
98/ In the state of dreaming, psychological states should not be represented by movements of the hands; they are explained through sattva and speech.
99/ The speech of a sleeping person sounds slow; words are sometimes distinct, sometimes indistinct; meanings are repeated twice; it depends on memories of the past.
Special kinds of speech
100/ Old people speak in a trembling voice, dropping syllables; children — with babbling, leaving syllables unfinished.
101/ The deathbed speech is indistinct, with relaxed and heavy organs of speech, a trembling voice like a bell, accompanied by hiccups, heavy breathing, and phlegm.
102/ The approach of fainting is accompanied by hiccups and heavy breathing; speech is as in dying; it is indicated by repetition.
The Representation of Death
103/ The representation of death from various causes differs — sometimes all limbs are thrown about, sometimes complete paralysis of movement sets in.
104/ Death from illness is represented through hiccups, heavy breathing, and an imperceptible relaxed movement of the limbs.
105/ Death from poison is shown through the scattering of hands, feet, and limbs; the effect of poison leads to twitching of the body parts.
Eight stages of poisoning
106-107/ Stages of the action of poison: (1) emaciation, (2) trembling, (3) burning, (4) hiccups, (5) foam, (6) fracture of the neck, (7) paralysis, (8) death.
107-108/ Thinness is shown through sunken eyeballs, hollow cheeks and lips, thinness of the belly, shoulders, and arms.
108-109/ Trembling is shown by the simultaneous shaking of the head, arms, and legs, or of individual limbs.
110/ Burning — through the shaking of the entire body, a feeling of pain, scratching of the limbs, and the flinging about of arms and limbs.
111/ Hiccup — through repeated blinking, belching, vomiting, convulsions, and the utterance of unintelligible words.
112/ Foam — through the absence of consciousness and movement of the eyes.
112-113/ Breaking of the neck — through touching the cheek with the shoulder and lowering the head; paralysis — through the inactivity of all sense organs, belching, vomiting, licking the corners of the mouth, and throwing the head back.
114/ Death — whether from illness or from a snake bite — is represented through the closing of the eyes according to dramatic convention.
Final instructions
115/ One should combine performances with suitable psychological states and sufficient sattva; the other popular aspects should be learned from people.
116/ Drama should be created just as garland-makers make garlands — from various kinds of gestures, moods, and psychological states.
117/ The prescribed movements and gaits for entering the stage are maintained without stiffness until leaving the stage.
118/ I have finished the account of the representation of words and gestures; what has been omitted should be gleaned from popular custom.
Three authorities of drama
119/ People, the Vedas, and spiritual capacity are the three authorities of drama; drama is for the most part based on the latter two.
120-121/ Drama, originating in the Vedas and spiritual capacity, comprising proper words and meter, succeeds when approved by people; people are the highest authority of drama.
121-122/ Imitation of the deeds of gods, sages, kings, and householders is called drama.
122-123/ A human character with various psychological states, presented through appropriate gestures, is called drama.
123-124/ People who have studied the verses about drama should incorporate events from people’s lives into plays under various circumstances.
124-125/ The related śāstras, laws, arts, and occupations can be presented as drama.
125-126/ All the rules of the world concerning the feelings and activities of moving and unmoving [beings] cannot be exhaustively set forth in a śāstra.
126/ The various inclinations of people sustain drama; playwrights and directors must accept people as the highest authority.
127/ The attention devoted to emotions, gestures, and sattvas, which represent psychological states through various characters, [constitutes the essence of dramatic art].
128/ Men who know the art of performance and apply it on stage attain the highest honor through the practice of dramatic theory and acting.
129/ Such are the modes of representation, depending on words, costumes, makeup, and gestures; the connoisseurs should apply them to achieve success.
Here ends chapter XXVI of the Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata, which treats of the pictorial representation.